Day 9 Outline
October 11, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Aaron Beck (1921-)
Life
Born in Providence, RI
BA Brown ; MD, Yale
Theory
Dreams reflected 3 common themes: defeat, deprivation and loss
Schemas = assumptions about how world operates
Philosophy = 3 main sources: phenomenological approach, Kant-Freud, & Kelly
How one thinks determines how one feels and behaves
People can consciously adapt reason
Client’s underlying assumptions as targets of intervention
Turn client into a colleague who researches verifiable reality
Personality reflects person’s cognitive organization and structure
Biologically and socially influenced
Schemas
personality is shaped by central values (superordinate schemas)
biochemical predisposition to illness
cognitive structures: core beliefs & assumptions about how the world operates
develop early in life from personal experiences and identification with significant others
people form concepts about themselves, others and world
adaptive or maladaptive; general or specific
rules about life and beliefs about self
Cognitive distortions = systematic errors in reasoning
idiosyncratic vulnerabilities
2 dimensions
Sociotropic dimension = dependence on others, needs for closeness and nurturance
Autonomous dimension = independence, goal setting, self-imposed obligations
Not fixed personality structures
Depression
Dependent people become depressed when relationships are disrupted
Autonomous people become depressed when fail to achieve a certain goal
Cognitive triad = negative view of self, world and future
Albert Ellis (1913-2007)
Life
Not believe childhood experience shaped his becoming a psychotherapist
Incompetent mother, brother acted out, sister whined; Ellis ill but refused to be miserable
Parents divorced when he was 12
Partially disabled with diabetes, poor hearing, weak vision
Liked the Stoic philosophers
BA City University (NY), business administration
MA Columbia, clinical psychology
PhD Columbia
Trained in psychoanalysis by one of Karen Horney’s followers
Theory
Rational Psychotherapy = focus on rational, not irrational thinking;
criticized for neglecting emotions
Confront people with their irrational beliefs, persuade them to adopt rational ones
Rational Emotive Therapy; criticized
Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy; primarily a cognitive behavioral therapy
4 fundamental processes: perception, movement, thinking, emotion
Thoughts and emotions frequently overlap, so much of emotion is evaluative thinking
Self-talk; internalized sentences determine our thoughts and emotions
Emotional disturbance = caring too much what others think
ABC theory of personality
Activating event
Belief system
Emotional consequence
Musturbatory belief system = absolute musts
Myths:
personality disorders mainly stem from parental rejection
feelings of worthlessness arise from constant criticism
sexual abuse victims invariably continue to suffer as adults;
Increasingly believes that heredity has a large influence on humans (80%)
Therapy
Very directive approach, people must judge behavior in terms of what right for them
Goal of therapy is to:
enable clients to commit themselves to actions that correspond to true value system
free individuals to develop a constructive and confident image of self-worth
Highly active, directive, didactic, philosophic, homework assigning therapy
how to recognize Should and Must thoughts
how to separate rational from irrational beliefs
how to accept reality
reduce disturbance-creating ideas to absurdity
Cognitions, emotions and behaviors are consistently interactional and transactional
Techniques
in vitro desensitization = imagined exposure to noxious stimuli paired with relaxation d
in vivo desensitization = gradual exposure to actual tasks or circumstances
client told to deliberately fail at a small task (show can survive a failure)
implosive desensitization = sudden confrontation of phobic situation (ethical?)
Day 7 Outline
October 11, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970)
Life
Born April 1, 1908, Brooklyn, NY
Oldest of seven; Russian immigrants
Moved from slums to lower-middle class (only Jewish boy in neighborhood)
Not close to either parent
Father worked a lot
Mother was schizophrenic: punished at least provocation; didn’t attend her funeral
Studied law at the City College of New York, 3 semesters
Transferred to Cornell, back to CCNY
He married Bertha Goodman, his first cousin, against his parents wishes
University of Wisconsin
Interested in psychology; school work improved dramatically
Worked with Harry Harlow: baby rhesus monkeys and attachment behavior
1935, returned to New York
worked with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia
became interested in research on human sexuality
Taught Brooklyn College; met Adler, Fromm, Horney, etc.
1951-1961, Brandeis
met Kurt Goldstein; introduced him to the idea of self-actualization
began to advocate humanistic psychology
Approach
Behaviorism = practical way to improve society
Birth of his first daughter “thunderclap”
Turned from behaviorism
Emphasized the positive side of human nature
Human being as a “wanting animal”
Humanistic psychology; “3rd Force”
Inner force to fulfill potential
Each person is unique
Ideal self vs. real self
Theory
Motivation versus Meta-motivation
Motivation = reducing tension by satisfying deficit states or lacks;
D-needs; deficit needs; physical survival
Meta-motivation = growth tendencies;
B-needs; being needs; drive to self-actualize and fulfill inherent potential;
D-needs take precedence B-needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety = orderly, stable, predictable world
Belonging and love = affection, intimate relationships, feel part of group
Self-esteem = 2 kinds: respect from other and self-respect
Self-Actualized
Self actualization
Picked out a group of people; some historical figures, some people he knew
Included:
Abraham Lincoln
Thomas Jefferson
Mahatma Gandhi
Eleanor Roosevelt
Benedict Spinoza
Albert Einstein
William James
Studied their lives; biographies, writings, etc
Characteristics
reality-centered: could differentiate what is fake from genuine
problem-centered: life’s difficulties as problems demanding solutions;
not as personal troubles to be railed at or surrendered to
different perception of means and ends; ends don’t necessarily justify the means
means could be ends themselves; the journey was often more important than the ends
different way of relating to others
need for privacy and comfortable being alone
independent of culture and environment; relying on their own experiences and judgment
resisted enculturation; not susceptible to social pressure; nonconformists in the best sense.
intimate personal relations; few close friends and family members
Gemeinschaftsgefühl; social interest, compassion, humanity; democratic values,
open to ethnic and individual variety
unhostile sense of humor; joke at their own expense
acceptance of self & others; not try change you into what you should be;
take you as you are
spontaneity and simplicity; preferred being themselves, not pretentious
freshness of appreciation; ability to see ordinary things with wonder
creative, inventive, and original
more peak experiences: feeling of being part of the infinite and the eternal;
takes you out of yourself; makes you feel very tiny; mystical experiences
self-actualizers are not perfect:
considerable anxiety and guilt but realistic anxiety and guilt
absentminded
overly kind
unexpected moments of ruthlessness, surgical coldness and loss of humor
Psychopathology and Treatment
Symptoms of pathology are learned
Treatment should be a learning situation; adaptive behaviors and cognitions are taught
Therapist-client relationship is viewed as being similar to a teacher-student relationship
Self is
the most important being
the center of one’s universe
second to no others
intrinsically good
self-perfecting
Needs
Hierarchically organized; lower levels before higher needs
Lower needs are more powerful & pressing; more primitive; deficiency-based
Higher needs are weaker, or subtle; more human; growth-based
Criticisms
Vague concepts: self-actualization, fully-functioning person
Too much free will
Psychology should be like physics: perfect prediction
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Life
Born January 8, 1902, Oak Park, Illinois, suburb of Chicago
4th of 6 kids
Father = civil engineer
Mother = devoted Christian
1914, moved to farm 30 miles west of Chicago
Self-disciplined, isolated, chores
His family gave him a lot of direction as he grew up
Attended U of Wisconsin: agriculture major, switched to religion
1 of 10 selected to attend World Student Christian Federation Conference, China
Graduated from college
Married Helen Elliot (against his parents’ wishes)
Attended Union Theological Seminary
Approach
People are basically good (healthy)
Mental health is the norm
Mental illness, criminality, etc are distortions of natural tendency
A relatively simple theory
Phenomonology
Each individual exists in center of phenomonal field
Emphasis on individual’s perception of reality
How it is perceived by the individual
The event itself is not important
Primary tendency of organism is to maintain, actualize and enhance itself
not automatic or effortless process
Behavior is goal-directed attempt of organism to meet its needs as it perceives them
Emotions facilitate behavior
Experiences are intrinsically growth-producing
An organismic valuing process subconsciously guides toward productive growth experiences
Provided that it has not been overlaid with external rules and social values.
Self
Self gradually emerges from the interaction with significant others
Real self vs self as perceived
Experiences are symbolized, ignored, dined or distorted, become subconscious
Parent shouldn’t threaten integrity of child’s self-concept
accept the child’s feeling of satisfaction
accept the child’s feelings that certain actions are inappropriate
Types of Self
Ideal Self: How you want to be
Actual Self: How see yourself
Real Self: How you act from day to day
Congruence of Self
Incongruence of Self
Self-concept
A portion of the phenomonal field that has gradually become differentiated
Comes in part through others; the potential for dissocaitve or estrangement exists
Self-concept is the object of perception
Basic human drive is to be a fully functioning person,
who lives by his/her values and not society’s/parents’ values
Self-concept is what we think our values are, but this might not reflect reality
If real values and our self-concept disagree, feel anxiety & use defense mechanisms,
including distortion (society is not trying to influence us) and d
enial (society is not succeeding in influencing us)
we subconsciously “know” it’s not true, so we feel unhappy.
To alleviate anxiety, Rogers used client-centered therapy:
unconditional positive regard (i.e. “You’re great no matter who you are”),
not conditional positive regard received (“You’re great only if do the right things)
Congruence
Symbolized experiences reflect all actual experiences
When congruent, person is free from inner tension and psychologically adjusted
2 basic needs
positive regard by others
positive regard by self
Positive regard = being loved and accepted for who one is
unconditional positive regard
conditional positive regard
Positive self-regard follows automatically when receive unconditional positive regard
5 characteristics of a fully functioning person
Openness to experience
Experiential freedom
Existential living
Organismic trust
Creativity
Theory
”Nondirective therapy” therapy (original name)
Client was given no direction at all
Choice of topic was up to client
”Client centered therapy”
Later, modified approach
Stressed client-therapist relationship
Stressed importance of “unconditional regard” (total acceptance; warm, friendly)
Psychopathology and Treatment
Symptoms of pathology are learned; all behavior is learned
Treatment is a learning situation
Adaptive behaviors and cognitions are taught
Therapist-client relationship is like teacher-student relationship
Becoming a fully functioning person
Unconditional positive regard
Therapy
Focus on the client’s topics of discussion
Clarify feelings
Restatement of content
Client is responsible for therapy’s progress, own conclusions, solve own problems
Day 8 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Viktor Frankl (1905-1997)
Pre-War
Studied Schopenhauer
Corresponded with Freud; met Freud in 1925
Preferred Adler’s theory
Organized free counseling centers for teen
Prisoner of War
Arrested in Vienna; Sept. 1942
119104 (stamped on his arm)
Father died of starvation at Theresienstadt in Bohemia
Mother & brother killed at Auschwitz
Wife died at Bergen-Belsen
Transferred to Auschwitz
“The Doctor & The Soul” (life’s work)
Believed people with vision of future (important task; loved ones) more likely to survive
Man’s Search For Meaning
“Ultimately, man should not ask what the meaning of his life is, but rather must recognize that it is he who is asked. In a word, each man is questioned by life; and he can only answer to life by answering for his own life; to life he can only respond by being responsible.”
”He who has a why to live for can bear with almost any how. ” — Friedrich Nietzsche
Meaning must be found, not given
Meaning must be discovered, not invented
Logotherapy
a will to meaning
against reductionism (the view that everything comes down to physiology)
Conscience
not Freud’s instinctual unconscious
source of your personal integrity; wisdom of the heart; core of your being
“Being human is being responsible — existentially responsible, responsible for one’s own existence.”
How Find Meaning
Experiential values (experiencing something you value)
esthetic experience; peak experience
Creative values
becoming involved in a project; your life as a project
Attitudinal values; compassion, bravery, humor or suffering
Supra-meaning or transcendence
ultimate meaning in life
not dependent on others
not dependent on projects
not dependent on dignity
spirituality
Therapy
Paradoxical intention (used to break vicious cycles); try to sweat
Dereflection = tend to overemphasize ourselves; shift emphasis to someone Terms
Noögenic Neurosis = existential neurosis; existential vacuum
Anticipatory anxiety = so afraid of getting symptoms get symptoms
Hyperintention = try so hard it prevents you from succeeding (insomnia)
Hyperreflection = thinking too hard about self
Rollo May (1909-1994)
Brought Heidegger’s existentialism to America
Emphasized the need for love
Emphasized man’s capacity to “will”
Importance of facing loneliness and anxiety
2 kinds of anxiety
Normal anxiety; can help you grow
Neurotic anxiety
Man’s capacity to “will”; actively choose the best of possibilities
We must choose to love
Love is composed of:
Sex
Eros (the need to unite with others)
Phila (brotherly love)
Agape (love for all mankind)
Existential Attitude
Existentialism = stand out or to emerge
Not essence but being
No truth or reality except as we participate in it
Knowledge is act of doing, not thinking
Spectator or player in game of life
Existence precedes essence
Emphasis on choice and responsibility
Worthwhile life is one that is authentic, honest and genuine
We face a predicament:
1. Powerlessness: inner feeling of emptiness
2. Anxiety: he likes anxiety better than the word stress
Inevitable characteristic of being human
Anxiety is apprehension cued from threat to some value
value that individual holds essential to his or her existence
3. loss of traditional values
Ability to stand outside of self permits us to create values that help shape our lives
The answer to our dilemma is to discover and affirm a new set of values
Can’t reaffirm the traditional values
No reaffirmation of our essence can occur because we have no essence, only existence
Rediscovering selfhood
Comes at risk of anxiety & inward crisis
Not automatic: born in a social context; grows in interpersonal relations
Ontological Assumptions
1. all living organisms are potentially centered in themselves; seek preserve that center
2. have need to go out from their centeredness, participate with other people
3. sickness is a method used to preserve his being, a strategy for survival
4. participate in self-consciousness that permits them to transcend immediate situation
4 states of consciousness of self
1. stage of innocence (infant)
2. stage of rebellion (toddler and adolescent)
3. ordinary consciousness of self
4. creative consciousness of self (ability to see outside one’s usual limited viewpoint)
Summary
Psychological concepts need to be oriented within an ontological framework
Rediscovering feelings
Most have to start again & rediscover their feelings
Meaning is experienced by a person who is:
feels the power of his will to choose
able to live by his highest values
knows his own intentions
centered in himself
and is able to love
Love is the supreme value
Will is the power to make love active in the world
Self-awareness and care are necessary to choose values
WILL is necessary in order to actualize them
Need know self and develop will, attain inner strength, fulfillment, love
Day 6 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Dollard & Miller
Psychoanalytic learning theory
Combined Clark Hull & Sigmund Freud
They met at Yale, Institute of Human Relations
Interdisciplinary between psych, psychiatry, soc and anthro
Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Knowledge comes from experience;
continually check current needs against past experience
Clark Hull drive reduction
Habits = learned associations between S and R
makes them occur together frequently
temporary structures (habits can appear and disappear)
Drives = strong internal stimulus, produces discomfort
2 types
Primary (physiological processes)
Secondary (learned); elaborations of primary drives
Reinforcer = anything that increases likelihood of particular response
Pimary reinforcers (reduce primary drives)
Secondary reinforces (originally neutral but acquire reward value)
Hierarchy of response = some responses used more than others
4 units of learning process
1. Drive = preexisting need
2. Cue = stimulus that tell person when, where and how to respond
3. Response = behavior
4. Reinforcement = drive reduction
if not reinforced
extinction of that response
try different responses until one satisfies need
Terms
Thoughts = cue-producing responses in the brain.
Reasoning = internal chains of drive, cue, response and reinforcement
Frustration = occurs when one is unable to reduce a drive; blocked
Conflict = incompatible responses are occurring at the same time
Types:
approach-approach
approach-avoidance
avoidance-avoidance
double approach-avoidance
2 main determinants of unconscious behavior
1. unaware of certain drives or cues; unlabeled
2. cues or responses once conscious; repressed because ineffective
repression is learned like all other behavior
Defense mechanisms are learned responses
identification = imitating behavior
displacement = stimulus generalization
4 critical training states
feeding
cleanliness
sex training
control of anger-aggression
Differences from Freud
Freud thought anxiety, conflict & repression were inevitable
D&M say they are learned
Neurosis = stupidity-misery syndrome
strong, unconscious, unlabeled emotional conflict
can’t discriminate effectively
Therapy
pragmatic
action oriented
composed of
unlearning old, ineffective habits
substituting new, more adaptive and productive responses
aims to reduce such fears so reasoning and planning can occur
2 phases
Talking Phase (problem analysis)
habits are identified so patient can unlearn them
providing labels – Rumpelstiltskin (lose power when confronted with his name)
Performance Phase (acquire new responses)
Training in suppression (conscious, deliberate stopping of a thought or action)
Deliberately exposed to new cues that will evoke different responses
Bandura, Albert
Observational learning theory
also called modeling or discovery learning
most learning is by watching others
Behaviorism
agree with behaviorism
use of experimental methods
environment causes behavior
disagree with behaviorism
too simplistic to explain complicated issues (e.g. aggression)
Reciprocal Determinism
interaction between environment, behavior, person
Principles
observational learning is more than observing
encoding model (words, labels or images) improves retention
more likely to do modeled behavior if
behavior has functional value
model is similar to observer
value outcome goal
model is admired
Bobo The Clown
Inflatable, egg-shaped punching bag
Film of person punching the clown, shouting “sockeroo!”
Film shown to kindergartners
In play time, children show increased aggression
even without reinforcement
more aggressive if reinforced
more aggressive if model same gender as child
Boys were generally more violent and aggressive than girls.
Concluded reinforcement necessary for learning to occur
Major components of modeling
1. Attention
Colorful and dramatic
Attractive, or prestigious, or competent
Seems like yourself
2. Retention
Convert observation to mental image
Inductive process
Remember
3. Reproduction
Convert mental image to behavior
Deductive process
Must have behavior in repertoire
Better able to do behavior, better able to imitate
Thinking about doing may help doing
4. Motivation
A reason for doing it
Past reinforcement (rewarded)
Promised reinforcement (incentive)
Vicarious reinforcement (seeing others rewarded; expectation)
Motives don’t “cause” learning; cause us to demonstrate what we have learned
Self-efficacy
self-knowledge of personal ability (competence)
Self-regulation
is self-concept or self-esteem
Steps
1. Self-observation = look at self, track own behavior, charting
2. Judgment = compare with a standard (external or internal rules)
3. Self-response = reward self for compliance; punish self?
3 Consequences of Excessive Punishment
a. compensation = superiority complex or delusions of grandeur
b. inactivity = apathy, boredom, depression
c. escape = drugs, alcohol, television, fantasies, suicide
Self-control Therapy
1. Behavioral charts to track behavior
2. Environmental planning = alter environment, remove or avoid cues
3. Self-contracts = specify contingencies; written, witnessed.
Modeling therapy
Improve by watching others
Observe someone productively dealing with the same issues
Fear of snakes
Client watches through a window
Actor successfully approaches snake; models self-soothing behaviors
Client invited to try it; some do it on first viewing
Film of productive behaviors works nearly as well as live viewing
Julian Rotter
Social learning theory
later called social cognitive theory
Probability of a given behavior is a function of
1. expectation (E) = likelihood behavior will elicit reward
2. reinforcement value (RV) = how rewarding is for individual
Personality is changeable collection of thoughts, environment and behavior interactions
Characteristics of Rotter’s approach
Optimistic
People are goal seekers
People try to maximize their reinforcement
Locus of Control
Univariant dimension that varies from internal to external
Generalized expectation of power of behavior to get reward
View of contingent relationship between action and outcome
Cross-situational beliefs
Characteristics
extent individuals believe can control events that affect them
high internal locus of control believe rewards come primarily from action
high external locus of control believes reward come by chance
different beliefs about reward contingency results in different behaviors
internal try to change world, externals go with the flow
Day 5 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
2 primary characteristics of Skinner’s work
1. Atheoretical
2. Inductive
Built on Thorndike’s work
Expanded Thorndike’s law of effect to an entire system of reinforcement
Thorndike experiment: Hungry cat learned to pull a string in order to leave a box and eat
food from a bowl placed just outside the box
Law of Effect: Behavior is controlled by its consequences
Behavior is emitted from the organism
A consequence occurs
The organism adapts its behavior accordingly
Focus on S-R-C (stimulus-response-consequence)
Not S-R (stimulus-response)
Rewards impact an entire class of behavior
Operant is a class of behavior
Not a single response
Answering the phone
Fictions
People are responsible for their own behavior; people are autonomous
Free will is a superstition
Intend doesn’t counts
Reinforcement & Punishment is not in the intent but in the effect
Approach
Radical behaviorism
S-R theory can account for all overt behaviors
Took ideas of Watson to logical extreme
Social Darwinism
assumes we are nothing more than a bundle of behaviors shaped by environment
Concentrated on variable and environmental forces, not person
Sought general principles of behavior
Relied on animal research (mostly rats and pigeons)
Elegantly simplistic theory
Functional analysis
1 subject at a time (laws of behavior must apply to every subject)
Internal structures are “fiction”
can’t be directly observed
can’t operationally define
can’t systematically test them
unnecessary to posit internal forces
Personality and personality theories are superfluous
internal states (if they exist) are the by-product of behavior
Operational definitions
Clear definitions not open to interpretation
Didn’t infer internal states (hunger, etc)
# of hrs not eaten
Did not hypothesize drive, insight or any internal process
Skinner’s experimental approach
Manipulated when a reward was received
Built a body of knowledge on replication
Used single subject designs (N=1)
Rejected statistical analyses
Operant Conditioning
Also called instrumental conditioning:
Responses operate on the environment and are instrumental in receiving reward
3 Components
1. Antecedent condition
Circumstances that indicate when to respond
The antecedent can be in the form of a discriminative stimulus
– green light = cross.
- red light = don’t cross.
2. Behaviour
3. Consequence
The outcome, result of behavior
Reinforcement = positive outcome
Punishment = negative outcome
2 bi-polar dimensions of consequences
Give-take
Posit
Negate
Good-bad (like-dislike)
Reward
Punish
4 consequence conditions
Positive reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative reinforcement
Negative punishment
Reinforcement
environmental $ that occurs after response & increases likelihood response will reoccur
increases likelihood of operant reappearing
3 types
Primary reinforcer
satisfies biological need, works naturally, regardless of prior experience
Secondary reinforcer
becomes reinforcing because of association with a primary reinforcer
Generalized conditioned reinforcers
type of secondary
praise and affection
2 ways to apply
give +
take -
Positive Reinforcement
stimulus after response makes response more likely to occur in the future
Negative Reinforcement
response terminates aversive stimulus, strengthens response
also called escape-learning
removing impending doom
avoidance learning: response prevents aversive event from occurring
child cleans his room to avoid parental nagging
5 schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Shaping
Reinforcer is obtained for every response
Fixed interval (FI) (scalloped)
after the elapse of N minutes
Fixed ratio (FR): every Nth response
Variable interval (VI) (resistant to extinction)
on average, after N minutes
Variable ratio (VR) (very resistant to extinction)
average is every Nth response
Intermittent schedules: Reinforcer is not obtained for every response
Rewards should be given deferentially
Parents should reward behaviors they want and ignore (extinguish) behaviors they don’t want.
Behavior can be shaped by rewarding successive approximations
Practice without reinforcement doesn’t improve performance
Punishment
Punishment (positive and negative) decrease the likelihood an operant reappearing
2 ways to apply: give and take
Punishment decreases the likelihood that a response will occur
Examples of punishing situations
Presentation of an aversive stimulus (Positive punishment)
Parent spanks a child for taking candy…
Owner swats a dog who has chewed her slippers…
Removal of a reward (Negative punishment)
Teenager who stays out past curfew is not allowed to drive the family car for 2 weeks…
Husband who forgets anniversary sleeps on couch for a week.
Difficulties in Punishment
Learner may not understand which operant behavior is being punished
Learner fear, rather than learn association between action & punishment (avoids teacher)
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behavior
Using punishment when the teacher is angry
Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression
Blocks behavior, not eliminate it
Application
Teaching pigeons to play table tennis
Language development
Chomsky
Programmed instruction
Teaching machine (or books with small quizzes)
Small bits of info presented in ordered sequence
Each frame or bit of info must be learned before allowed to proceed to the next section
Assumes proceeding to the next section is thought rewarding
Therapy
3 steps
identify the behaviors that are maladaptive,
remove them
substitute more adaptive and appropriate behaviors
No need to review the individual’s past or encourage reliving it
not dependent on self-understanding or insight
Operant conditioning chamber
hated the popular title of “Skinner box”)
“Baby Tender” crib
air conditioned, glass box
used for his own daughter for two and a half years
commercially available, not a popular success
Theoretically successful but practically unaccepted applications
WWII missile guidance system
Pigeons as “navigators”
Army rejected it out of hand.
Token economy (retarded, industrial, prison)
Social Utopia
Walden II (behaviorally engineered society designed by a benevolent psychologist)
Beyond Freedom and Dignity (most major problems caused by human behavior
Criticisms
Can’t handle intentionality
Day 4 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Anna Freud (1895-1982)
Emphasized repression as main defense mechanism (acting on impulse can hurt you)
Emphasized ego
Defend your ego by separating ideas and feelings,
Projection (putting your feelings onto someone else),
Self aggressive behavior (suicide is an extreme example).
Play is normal; shows child’s adaptation to reality; not necessarily revels unconscious conflicts
Application of psychoanalysis to new areas
Study of children (coauthor: Dorothy Burlingham)
Showed children’s reaction to combat (impact of bombing raids on British children)
Not instinctive reaction; look to mother for her reaction
Emphasis on protective, supportive and educational attitudes
Personality comes out of a developmental sequence
Produced a classification system of childhood symptoms;
Created the “diagnostic profile” (a formal assessment procedure)
Developmental lines = series of id-ego interactions; children decrease dependence on external controls
1. dependency to emotional self-reliance
2. sucking to rational eating
3. wetting and soiling to bladder and bowel control
4. irresponsibility to responsibility
5. play to work
6. egocentricity to companionship
Ego must become aware of the defenses it is using (can infer them from behavior)
Analysis of defenses permits one to understand the child’s life history
Importance of paying attention to patient’s maturation level
Developed a concept of normality for the adolescent period
Period of disharmony but the crisis is “normative” and functional
Clarified which types of acting out are normal and which aren’t
Believed there are realistic limits to psychoanalysis
Wrote on the process of identification with the aggressor
(victim reacts with gratitude and admiration)
Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994)
Life
No college degree; in Vienna, started a progressive, non-graded, Montessori style school
Invited by Anna Freud to be analyzed by her and become a child analyst
Coined “identity crisis”
Ego
A creative problem solver; gives coherence to experiences (conscious and unconscious)
Maintains effective performance (not just avoid anxiety); has adaptive defenses
Organizing capacity (can reconcile discontinuities and ambiguities)
Develops strengths at each stage of development
Elaborated on Feud’s stages (added a social dimension)
Psychosocial stage characteristics
Children try to understand and relate to the world
An emotional polarity or specific conflict
Epigenetic (upon emergence)
Sequential, hierarchical, personality becomes more complex
Personal timetable; not strict time periods but there are critical periods
Behaviors from 1 stage don’t disappear when the next starts
Each has its own “life crisis” and virtue
8 stages
1. Trust vs distrust: Hope
if unresolved, perceive world as indifferent or hostile
not fully resolved in 1st year of life
2. Autonomy vs shame-doubt: Will
must become self-willed and take chances with trust
negativism of 2 yr. old (No) = attempt to autonomy
3. Initiative vs guilt: Purpose
preschoolers: ask why
begin to image goals can reach; language more polished; engage in projects
Oedipus complex (called it generational complex)
4. Industry vs inferiority: Competence
focus moves to the ego
conscious of doing superior or inferior work; industriousness = make something well
5. Ego identity vs role confusion: Fidelity
faithful to an ideological point of view
question way life is; begin to reconstruct roles and skills into a mature sense of identity
role confusion = unable to conceive self as productive member of society
confusion of values (important to give kids ideals they can share enthusiastically)
identify crisis = failure to establish stable identity
negative identity = opposed to dominant values of their upbringing
6. Intimacy vs isolation: Love
overcome the fear of ego loss; form a close affiliation with another
7. Generativity vs stagnation: Care
parenthood is one way to express generativity; ability to be productive and creative
if don’t have kids, work with other people’s kids or help create a better world for them
importance of procreative desires of human beings
8. Ego integrity vs despair: Wisdom
ability to reflect on one’s life with satisfaction even if all dreams weren’t met
Emphasized life span; impact of culture, society and history on developing personality
Wrote psycho-historical studies of famous people
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
1st to challenge Freud’s ideas about women
Anxiety is the basis of human condition
created by social forces
not by human predicament
Basic Evil = all of the negative factors in the environment
domination, isolation, overprotection
Children’s fears may be objectively unrealistic but for them they are real.
Essential for healthy personality development that they feel safe and secure
Significance of early relationships in their totality
Oedipus complex: parents not responding with pride & empathy to growth of their children.
We use strategies to deal with or minimize feelings of anxiety.
Neurotic needs or trends = exaggerated or inappropriate strivings
Neurotic trends are the result of the formative experiences that create basic anxiety.
10 different neurotic needs
Exaggerated need for affection and approval
Need for dominant partner
Exaggerated need for power
Need to exploit others
Exaggerated need for social recognition or prestige
Exaggerated need for personal admiration
Exaggerated ambition for personal achievement
Need to restrict one’s life within narrow boundaries
Exaggerated need for self-sufficiency and independence
Need for perfection and unassailability
3 types of coping strategies
moving toward (compliance)
moving against (hostility)
moving away (detachment)
3 basic orientations, respectively
self-effacing solutions (appeal to be loved)
self expansive solution (attempt at mastery)
resignation solution (desire to be free of others)
2 types of self
real self = things that are true about us
idealized self = what should be
similar to Freud’s concept of the ego-ideal
a special need of the individual to keep up appearances of perfection
Neurotics are governed by the Tyranny of the Should
Feminine Psychology
Men and women develop fantasies in their efforts to copy with the Oedipal situation
Womb envy (serious or tongue-in-cheek?)
Jealous over women’s ability to bear and nurse children
Shown in rituals of taboo, isolation & cleansing associated with menstruation & childbirth
Need to disparage women
Accuse them of witchcraft
Belittle their achievements
Deny them equal rights
Womb envy and penis envy are compliments
Men and women have an impulse to be creative and productive
Natural need
Women satisfy this need internally and externally
Men can satisfy their need only externally through accomplishments in the external world
”Flight from womenhood” can be observed in society
Inhibit women’s femininity; they become frigid
Women distrust men and rebuff their advances but wish they were male
Sexual unresponsiveness is not the normal attitude of women
Essence of being a women lies in motherhood
Defined feminine self in terms of women’s own self, not her relationship with a man
Women should reach freedom from inner bondage
We engage in self-analysis when we try to account for the motive behind our behaviors.
4 prerequisites for good decision making
be aware of our real feelings
create our own set of values
make a deliberate choice between 2 opposite possibilities
take responsibility for the decision we make
Emphasis on an individual’s current situation rather than on the past
Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
Combined Freud and Marx
Freedom is a basic human condition
To be human is to be isolated and lonely
one is distinct from nature and others
loneliness represent basic human condition
separates humans from animal nature
Know we going to die, so we have a feeling of despair
3 escape mechanisms
1. Authoritarianism
domination
permit other to dominate or seem to dominate and control others
2. Destructiveness
elimination of others or outside world
3. Automaton conformity
cease to be themselves
adopt the type of personality preferred by their culture
”the loss of the self”
Escape mechanisms are forces in normal people
5 Basic Needs
relatedness
transcendence
rootedness
sense of identity
frame of orientation & object of devotion
Later added “excitation and stimulation”
Our primary drive is toward the affirmation of life
In a capitalistic society, acquiring money is a means of establishing a sense of identify
In an authoritarian society, identifying with the leader or state provide a sense of identify
We create society to fulfill our needs but the society we create limits our need being met
Character is determined by culture and its objectives
authoritarian ethics have their source in a conscience that is rooted outside the individual
humanistic ethics represent true virtue in the sense of the unfolding of a person’s powers
biophilous character = seek to live life
necrophilous character = attracted to what is dead and decaying and seeks to destroy life
Malignant forms of aggression can be reduced when socioeconomic conditions changed
Productive love is an art; productive love is the true creative answer to human loneliness
symbiotic relationships are immature or pseudo forms of love
1976, added two basic modes or orientations
having mode = relies on the possessions that a person has
being mode = fact of existence
Everyone is capable of both having and being modes but society determines which prevails
Field study of a Mexican village; Michael Maccoby (coauthored it)
landowners (productive-hoarding);
poor workers (unproductive-receptive);
business group (productive-exploitative)
Object Relations
Intrapsychic experience of early relationships with others
Babies+ relate to individuals and form attachments
Relationship between intrapsychic dynamics and interpersonal relationships
Melanie Klein (1882-1960)
British, competitor of Anna Freud; modified Freud’s drive theory
Drives are psychological forces that seek people as their objects
Children
construct an internal representation of people
apply that representation to real people
project them onto real people
she’s like Mom; he’s like Uncle Fred
those early stereotypes make it hard to relate to people as they are
Split objects & feelings into good-bad aspects because anxiety over aggressive impulses
objects are good
feelings are bad
Emphasized
1. interaction of unconscious fantasies and real experiences
2. children are slow development realistic relationships with the world
Margaret Mahler (1897-1985)
psychological birth
begins with symbiotic fusion of child and mother
emerges as separate individual
unfolding process
separation = physical differentiation
individuation = psychological growth toward own identity
2 forerunner phases (move from narcissism to recognition of the external world)
1. normal autism
2. normal symbiosis
4 stages of the separation-individuation process
1. body image (5-9 months)
2. practicing (10-14 months)
perfecting motor abilities
developing physical independence
3. rapprochement (14-24 months)
increased awareness of separateness from mother
conflict: urge to separate and fear of loss
can see it when absent from mother
recognize mother has good and bad aspects
4. consolidation (2-3 years)
unification of the good and bad mother
beginnings of child’s own individuality; separate personhood
development of a self concept based on the a stable sense of “me”
Normal healthy infants have drive for and towards individuation
2 realities
1. importance of interpersonal dynamics
2. unconscious reality
Compared severely disturbed and normal children
Ego passes through stages
separation-individuation process
begins about 4th month; forms stable self concept by 3rd yr.
Criticism
no reciprocity (mother as separate person as well)
babies more hard-wired than Mahler thought
Heinz Kohut (1913-1981)
Extended Margaret Mahler’s observations
Importance of child-mother relationships
Self theory
Narcissism
individual fails to develop an independent sense of self
exaggerated sense of self-importance and self-involvement
behaviors hide a fragile sense of self worth
narcissism isn’t at just one stage
gradually unfolds
permeates the entire life span
leads to a distorted sense of self; from a failure in parental empathy
children need to be mirrored (talk acknowledged & accomplishments praised)
looking for an idealized parent substitute that can never be found
In ideal development, nuclear self emerges in 2nd year
bipolar self creates a tension arc, fosters development of early skills and talents
subsequent goals
The ideal autonomous self has qualities of self-esteem and self-confidence
shows lack of dependency on others
Narcissistic disorder
recurrent self-absorption
low self-esteem
unimportant physical complaints
chronic sense of emptiness
addictions
a futile attempt to repair development deficits in the self”
cult membership
Therapy
psychoanalysis can’t help unless therapist deals first with the narcissistic disorder
imagine you’re “into the clients’ skin”
cultivate feelings of being understood
use empathy and introspection (not free association and suspended attention)
when children develop normally, Oedipus complex may be a joyful experience
Otto Kernberg (1928-)
Narcissistic disorder
parents who were indifferent, cold, subtly hostile and vengeful
exaggerated self-images
insatiable need for approval from other people
the result of drives not neutralized
Borderline personality disorders
unable to engage in introspection or develop insight
strong mood swings
see significant others as all good or all bad
on the border between functioning adequately and lapsing into psychotic episodes
diagnose on causal description of early historical relationships
Splitting
introduced the concept
failing to consolidate positive and negative experiences
swing back and forth between conflicting images
you are either good or bad
Treatment
”expressive psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy”
face to face, intensive session, 3+ times per week, stress current behavior
complete transference is not permitted
don’t resolve transference by interpretation alone
directly state distortions
feelings are psychophysiological structures
evolved to assist in surviving
building blocks of drives
aggression is a major motivating force
Day 3 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Life
Born in Penzing, Austria (near Vienna)
Frail & sickly (rickets)
2nd child of six
Father was a wealthy grain merchant
Mother favored his older brother: Sigmund Adler
1895, MD from U of Vienna
1902, Freud invited him to join
”Wednesday evening discussions”
Sigmund was 14 years older
Like an older, wiser brother
Competition
1910, Adler become president of Vienna Analytic Society
1911, complete break with Freud
1916-18, Drafted into army
WWI, physician on the Russian front
“War is not the continuation of politics with other means,
but the greatest social crime against the solidarity of humanity.”
1921, opened chain of 30 child-guidance clinics
1926, visit US (extended stay)
1934, moved from Vienna to Long Island
1937, died on a lecture tour to Scotland
Heart attack at Aberdeen University
Founder of “individual psychology
Coined the term “feelings of inferiority”
Not more valuable than another
Moving higher in rank toward completeness
Getting closer to perfection
Reaching our full potential
Compensation
Compensation is good
Make up for weakness
Demosthenes
384-322 BC
Speech impediment; stammered
Compensated:
Put pebbles in his mouth
Recited verses while running
Became Greek’s greatest orator
Annette Kellerman
Mother of synchronized swimming
Creator of 1-piece swim suit
Began swimming because of childhood illness; barely able to walk
Overcompensating is bad
Take advantage of other people
Try to cover up a weakness
Six distinctively-Adlerian concepts:
a. Family constellation
position within the family
sibling rivalry
b. Pampered child
Spoiled and protected
Greatest curse of childhood
Deprived of right to be independent
c. Inferiority complex
unfulfilled, overwhelmed by inferiority
organ inferiorities
some body parts stronger
circus performers
psychological inferiorities
concentrate only on what good at
math phobia
d. Superiority complex
pretending to be superior
exaggerate own importance
e. Compensation = striving to overcome
f. Life lie
self-deception
mistaken style of life
More Adlerian concepts:
Masculine protest
Demands to have his own way
Normal for boys
Boys are encouraged to be assertive in life
Boys and girls begin life with the capacity for “protest!”
Girls not encouraged to be assertive
Woman act & dress like man to compensate
Three situations that make a faulty lifestyle
1. Organ inferiorities & childhood diseases
“Overburdened”
Tend to be focus on themselves
Most = strong sense of inferiority
Some = overcompensate: superiority complex
Few truly compensate; need the encouragement of loved ones
2. Pampered child
Taught by the actions of others
Can take without giving
Their wish is everyone else’s command
Pampered child fails in two ways
1. doesn’t learn to do for himself; discovers later that he is truly inferior
2. doesn’t learn any other way to act; always gives commands
Society responds with hatred
3. Neglect
Told they are of no value
Taught to trust no one
Learn inferiority
Orphans, victims of abuse, parents are never there or rigid rules
Style of life = how live your life
Teleology = moving towards the future
Fictional finalism
Behave “as if” (philosopher Hans Vaihinger)
as if knew world will be here tomorrow
as if were sure what is good and bad
as if everything we see is as we see it
“as if” heaven & hell real
“fiction” = can’t be proven
”finalism” = won’t know until future; but it influences our behavior today
Psyche = ultimate finalism
Social interest
originally called Gemeinschaftsgefuhl
“community feeling”
can’t exist or thrive without others
social animals
Self-guarding tendencies = to not feel inferior
Neuroses = unrealistic life goals
Adler’s 3 “entrance gates” to mental life
a. Birth order
Only child
pampered, special care, parents more anxious, no one to rely on
1st child
begins as an only child, dethroned, battle for lost position
act like the baby
disobedient and rebellious
sullen and withdrawn
most likely to be problem children
more conservative
precocious
2nd child
has first child to be “pace-setter”
tries to surpass the older child, competitive
tend to dream of constant running without getting anywhere
Other “middle” children are similar to second child;
each may focus on a different “competitor”
Youngest child
most pampered
only one who is never dethroned
second most likely problem children
incredible inferiority; everyone older & “therefore” superior;
can be driven to exceed all of them
b. Earliest memory
Concerned with the theme
If involves security & attention, might be pampered
If recall aggressive competition with your older brother, “ruling” personality
If involves neglect or hiding, it might mean severe inferiority and avoidance
c. Dreams
Includes daydreams
An expression of your style of life
Reflect your goals
If can’t remember any dreams, fantasize
Personality Types
3 styles have no social interest
Differ on amount of energy use
Ruling
dominates people
lots of energy
Leaning
also called “getting” type
rather get than give
some energy
Avoiding
try to escape
no energy
Socially useful
4th type has both social interest & energy
Therapy
Client caught in dark room & can’t find an exit
Mirror Technique = looks at self in mirror
Favorite questions
”And why do you feel like that?”
“What purpose does your illness serve?”
“What do you think is the reason for your reacting that way?”
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
Life
Born in Kessewil, Switzerland; July 26, 1875
Father (Paul Jung) was a minister
Mother (Emilie Preiswerk Jung)
Didn’t care for school
Kept to himself
Didn’t like competition
Boarding school in Basel, Switzerland
Teased by others
Tended to faint under pressure
First career choice was archeology
MD, University of Basel ; work under famous neurologist Krafft-Ebing
1913, in the fall, has a vision
“Monstrous flood”
Engulfing most of Europe
Comes to mountains of Switzerland
Thousands drown & civilization crumble; waters turned into blood
Followed by several weeks of dreams of eternal winters and rivers of blood
1916, August 1, World War I began
1918-1928, self-exploration
Wrote down his dreams, fantasies & visions
Drew, painted, and sculpted them
Common threads
Formed into ‘persons’
wise old man = spiritual guru
little girl = “anima”: the feminine soul; his medium with his unconscious
leathery dwarf guards the unconscious; the shadow
Lots of dreams about death
dead people
the land of the dead
the rising of the dead
Represented the unconscious itself
Not the “little” personal unconscious
Collective unconscious of humanity
Contain all the dead, including our personal ghosts
Mentally ill are haunted by ghosts
Personal ghosts
Collective unconscious
10 characteristics of Jung:
a. Amplification
Different from free association
Focus repeatedly on same element
Give multiple associations
b. Persona = social role
c. Shadow = un-social feelings & thoughts
Opposite side of persona
d. Anima-Animus
Anima = feminine side of male
Animus = masculine side of female
e. Archetype = universal themes affect behavior
f. Synchronicity = meaningful coincidences
g. Transcendence = integration of self systems
h. Primordial images
Memory traces from ancestral past
Including pre-human
i. Collective unconscious = composed of primodial images
j. Personal unconscious = stores personal experiences
Other characteristics of Jung:
Complexes = an organized group of thoughts and feelings about something
So preoccupied influences most behavior
Mother
Self = the central archetype
Constellating power = attracts new ideas into it and integrates them
Transpersonal = extends across persons
Mandala = the symbol of self; self striving for wholeness
Compensatory function = speak for the unconscious
Psychic birth
Starts in adolescence
Psyche shows definite form
Personality grows throughout life
Big changes in middle years (35-40)
Teleology
Moving toward future; like Adler
Causality = relative causality
Synchronicity
Jung’s 4 basic functions
a. sensation
b. intuition
c. thinking
d. feeling
8 Personality Types
4 basic functions
Sensation-intuition = how deal with facts and reality
Thinking-feeling = logic, value and attitudes
2 primary attitudes toward reality
introversion
inward to subjective world
direct psychic energy more inwardly focused
extroversion
outward to objective world
direct psychic energy towards the things in external world
Jungian Assessments
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Word association test
Active imagination
Rorschach ink blots
Myers-Briggs
16 different 4-letter combinations
EI Extroversion-Introversion
SN Sensing-Intuition
FT Feeling-Thinking
JP Judgement-Perception
Sensation (S) seeks fullest possible experience of what is immediate and real
Intuition (N) seeks the broadest view of what is possible and insightful
Thinking (T) seeks rational order and plan according to impersonal logic
Feeling (F) seeks rational order according to harmony among subjective values
Day 2 Outline
October 10, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Life
Impacted by Darwin; set out to be a biologist who proved evolution
Father of psychoanalysis
Psychosexual stages of development
Defense mechanisms
Oedipus complex
Dream analysis
Joseph Breuer
Respected, successful, and sophisticated
Physician in Vienna
Anna O
Real name was Bertha Pappenheim
Patient of Breuer in 1889
Epiletpic?
Symptoms improved by talking about her problems while under hypnosis
Helped her deal with emotionally-charged events from past
Procedure
“Chimney sweeping”
“The talking cure”)
Freud & Breuer write book together
Wilhelm Fliess
Emma Eckstein
February 1895
Theory
Deterministic
Internal motivation
Terms from physics
Self-contained system
Psychic energy
Based on case histories
Good writing
Behavior caused by opposing forces
Conscious processes
Unconscious process
ID
Most basic component of personality
Develops the earliest
Neonate is only an id
Relies on the pleasure principle
Operates like a reflex
Provides psychic energy
Primary process = makes image of what desires
Can’t distinguish between images and reality; completely unconscious
EGO
Controls motor and sensory functions of body
Allows child to interact with reality
Reality principle
Object substitution = Finds objects in reality to satisfy id
SUPEREGO
Created by ego
Learning right from wrong
Can’t tell reality from images (imagined)
Punishes you for bad idea
Punishes you for bad action
Composed of
Conscience = what you should not do
Ego ideal = what you should do
Fights with id = anxiety
Freudian slips
Ego balances id and superego
Ego fights anxiety by keeping impulse out of consciousness
Several techniques = defense mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
Denial = don’t admit it’s real
Displacement = kick the dog, not the wife
Projection = see my faults in you
Rationalization = there’s a good reason
Displacement = kick the dog, not the wife
Projection = see my faults in you
Rationalization = there’s a good reason
Reaction Formation = act in the opposite
Repression = don’t think or feel
Regression = go back to when it was safe
Compensation = make-up for a deficiency
Intellectualization = detachment
Sublimation = redirect undesirable impulses (most constructive approach)
5 Psychosocial Stages
Fixation
Too much libido tied to a particular stage
Too much or too little gratification
1. Oral Stage
Healthy
Writers, artists and entertainers who use fantasy creatively
Too little gratification
Dependence
Tends to withdraw into fantasy
Regresses more readily
Too much gratification
Hostility and biting sarcasm
2. Anal Stage
Harsh toilet training
Excessively orderly or compulsive individuals
Compulsive behavior to control impulses
Counting, cleaning and checking
Obsessive = repetitive thoughts to control guilt and anxiety.
3. Phallic Stage
Fixation
Hyper-emphasis on competition, sexuality and power
Physical appearance
Emphasized to seduce, manipulate and control
Oedipal Period: Boys
Sexual desire aimed at mother as main love object
Fears father
Castration anxiety
Electra Period: Girls
Sexual desire aimed at father – male genitalia
Resents mother
Penis envy
4. Latency Stage
Healthy development
Tranquil, wholesome home-life
Without too much emotion or sexuality
Disturbed latency
Impulse control problems
Repressed latency
Rigid upbringing
“Out of touch” with feelings
5. Genital Stage
Lust is blended with affection.
Achievement
Balance love and work
Goal: observing ego
Ability to look at oneself honestly & make changes
Day1 Outline
March 18, 2009 by · Leave a Comment
5 Paths To Truth
Religion = revelation
Wisdom = insight
Philosophy = logic
Science = systematic observation
Tangen = dumb luck
Ancient Trait Theory
Chinese Zodiac
Shun Dynasty (1766-1050 BC)
Year of birth determines personality
60-year cycle based on lunar calendar
Hippocrates (460-370 BC)
“Good humor” is the balance of:
yellow bile (air)
phlegm (water)
black bile (earth)
blood (fire)
Balancing the fluids is essential to good health
Belief that lasted well into the Middle Ages
Galen (130-220)
4 temperaments
Sanguine
blood is dominant
warm, optimistic and confident
Melancholic
black bile is dominant
sad and depressed
cause by eating too many cold foods
Phlegmatic
phlegm is dominant
sluggish, apathetic
Choleric
yellow bile is dominant
angry, aggressive, violent
caused by eating too many warm foods
Impact = the authority on medicine until 16th century
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
Emphasized physiology and genetics
Used factor analysis
Trait theorist
Emphasized temperament
Temperament = genetic component of personality
Character = learned component of personality
Merged biological determinism & behaviorism
Introversion-Extroversion
The degree to which a person
Directs energies outward toward environment
Direct energies inward toward self-focused life
Neuroticism-Emotional Stability
Neuroticism = predisposition to become emotionally upset
Stability = predisposition to be emotionally even
Psychoticism
Added later
A person high on this trait is antisocial, cold, hostile, and unconcerned about others
A person low on psychoticism is warm and caring toward other
3-dimensional model
Factors are biological determined
P – Psychoticism
linked to endocrine gland especially
controls sex drive
E – Extraversion
linked to ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
reticular formation of brain stem
N – Neuroticism
linked to limbic system
brains emotional center
regulates sex, fear & aggression
Franz Gall (1758-1828)
One of the first comparative anatomists
Brain localization
Founder of “cranioscopy” = phrenology
William Sheldon (1898-1977)
Antrhopometric method = things that don’t change with age
Studied4,000 men; photos (front, side and back)
Contribution of 3fundamental elements
Atlas of Men
Pure forms (somatotypes)
Endomorph = 7-1-1
Mesomorph = 1-7-1
Ectomorph = 1-1-7
Criminals
high in endomorphy
intermediate in mesomorphy
Suicidal
high in ectomorphy
Insanity
ectomorphs
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
50 definitions of personality
Personality is a real entity
Functional autonomy
Proprium
rational coper
proprium striving
Mature Personality (6 criteria)
Extension of sense of self
Warm relations with others
Emotional security
Realistic perception of skills
Self-objectification
Unifying philosophy of life & religion
8 Characteristics
1. Exist in people
2. More generalized than habits
3. May determine behavior
4. Can be discovered with systematic observation
5. Only relatively independent of each other
6. Not the same as moral character
7. Inconsistencies don’t mean traits don’t exist
8. Some traits are unique to you
2 types of traits
Common = adjectives
Personal
Cardinal disposition
Central disposition
Secondary disposition
Raymond Cattell (1905-)
Reduced Allport’s 4,000 traits to 171
Used Factor Analysis
Personality consisted of 46 surface traits
Condensed to 16 source traits
1950, published the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
Other Accomplishments
2-factor theory of intelligence
Fluid (innate)
Crystallized (culturally constituted)
Allport’s adjectives using Q, T, and L data
Q-data = from self-reports & questionnaires (questionnaire data)
T-data = from controlled test situations-observational ratings & notes (test data)
L-data = from person’s life, school, work, community etc. (life data)
Henry Murray
Psychological hedonism
Ultimate goal of behavior is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
Needs can be unconscious processes;
implicit motives (inhibited, conflicts)
Needs can be explicit motives; aware of competitiveness
2 kinds of needs
Viscerogenic needs
hunger, thirst; needed for survival
important for everyone
Psychogenic needs = achievement; individual differences
20 needs
4 major needs identified
Achievement
Power
Affiliation
Intimacy
Press = external events that influence motives
Seeing someone eat dessert
Environmental influence on motives;
as opposed to biological or internal influences of needs
Can bring on a motivational state through environmental exposure
Both objective and subjective press exists
Alpha Press (objective environment)
Beta Press (perceived environment)
Motives that influence behavior in some circumstances
Motives = drives to meet needs and reduce dissatisfaction;
internal states that arouse & direct toward goal (hunger)
Cognitions with affective overtones
organized around preferred experiences and goals
emotionally-charged goals
Appear in thoughts about either desired or undesired goals
Lead to behavior directly
Subjective overtones
Influenced by needs
Theory
Idiographically oriented = individual differences
Developed wide-ranging theory of personality
Organized by needs, motives, and presses
Manifest needs (observable)
Latent needs (underlying)
Process
Underlying need and the external press are combined into motives
Motives influence what behaviors are expressed
Hierarchy of Needs
Needs exist at different levels of strength
Each need interacts with other needs
resulting in interactions, or dynamics within the person
Varies from person to person
unique patterning of needs, motives, behaviors (individualized)
Measuring Needs
Manifest Needs (aka Motives) = behavior, self-report
Latent Needs (True definition of Needs)
Murray was most interested in latent needs
Indirect methods
Applied the term “Apperception”
the process of projecting needs onto a stimulus
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Christiana Morgan (1897-1967)
Born in Boston; moved to NY; studied art
She & William became friends with Henry and Josephine Murray
1925, analyzed by Jung
Had little feeling for her son; felt most alive with men
She had a series of semi-hypnotic “visions”
Jung thought she was burying her feminine spirituality;
hiding under masculine rationality
Jung recommended she have an affair to unlock her unconscious
suggested she be a muse for Murray
instead of creating children, she could create a man;
serve a man, serve the world
1934, her husband died
1938, co-created the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
First known as the Morgan-Murray Thematic Apperception Test
Later it was Murray and the “staff of the Harvard Psychological clinic”
She was in poor health
High blood pressure
Had a radical sympathectomy = sever sympathetic nerves spinal cord
She was in poor mental health
Sexual experimentation
Stormy relationships
Difficult marriage
Alcoholic
1965, Murray found younger woman
1967, she & Murray took trip to Virgin Islands
She drowned herself at age 69
Thematic Apperception Test
Ambiguous pictures
Originally taken from magazine photos; probably US Camera-1942
Cardsnot specifically created to elicit unconscious (not theory based)
Assumed any ambiguous stimuli could be used
Interpretation of interpersonal situations
Today 31 pictures available; usually use 10 cards per person
Select different ones for men, women or children
Not a standardized set of stimuli
Used to discover hidden emotions, inner needs
Often used to complement info from Rorschach ink-blot test
Can be used as a test of imagination
Card 1
Boy and his violin
Drawn by Christiana Morgan
Based on a photo of a Yehudi Menuhin
Card 13-B
Little boy is sitting on the doorstep of a log cabin
Based on Marion Post Wolcott’s photo of a Kentucky log cabin
Subjects create a story
What’s going on
What is being thought & by whom
What went on before
What will happen next
Big Five
1980s-1990s
Research-driven model
Data-driven theory
Inductive
Described somewhat differently, but
5 basic personality dimensions
Found in a variety of cultures
Evolutionary perspective
5 Dimensions
Extraversion = energetic, sociable vs shy, reserved, introverted
Neuroticism = high-strung, emotional vs calm, emotionally stable
Openness = imaginative, open-minded vs traditional thinking
Agreeableness = friendly, trusting vs cold, unkind
Conscientiousness = dependable, organized vs impulsive, careless
Evaluating Trait Theories
Behavior is result of interaction between traits and situations
Critics say it generally fails to explain:
Personality; label general predispositions
How or why individual differences develop
Motives that drive personality
Role of unconscious mental processes
How belief about self influence personality
How psychological growth and change occur
